Federalism and the United States Constitution

Federalism and the United States Constitution Federalism is a compound system of government in which a single, central or â€Å"federal† government is combined with regional government units such as states or provinces in a single political confederation. In this context, federalism can be defined as a system of government in which powers are divided among two levels of government of equal status. In the United States, for example, the system of federalism - as created by the U.S. Constitution - divides powers between the national government and the various state and territorial governments. How Federalism Came to the Constitution While Americans take federalism for granted today, its inclusion in the Constitution did not come without considerable controversy. The so-called Great Debate over federalism took the spotlight on May 25, 1787, when 55 delegates representing 12 of the original 13 U.S. states gathered in Philadelphia for the Constitutional Convention. New Jersey was the lone state that chose not to send a delegation. The main goal of the Convention was to revise the Articles of Confederation, adopted by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, shortly after the end of the Revolutionary War. As the nation’s first written constitution, the Articles of Confederation provided for a decidedly weak federal government with more significant powers granted to the states. Among the most glaring of these weaknesses were: Each state - regardless of its population - got only one vote in Congress.There was only one chamber of Congress rather than a House and Senate.All laws required a 9/13 supermajority vote to pass in Congress.Members of Congress were appointed by the state legislatures rather than elected by the people.Congress had no power to levy taxes or regulate foreign and interstate commerce.There was no executive branch provided to enforce laws passed by Congress.There was no Supreme Court or a  lower national court system.Amendments to the Articles of Confederation required a unanimous vote of the states. The weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation had been the caused a seemingly endless series of conflicts between the states, especially in the areas of interstate trade and tariffs. The delegates to the Constitutional Convention hoped the new covenant they were crafting would prevent such disputes. However, the new Constitution finally signed by the Founding Fathers in 1787 needed to be ratified by at least nine of the 13 states in order to take effect. This would prove to be far harder than the document’s supporters had expected. A Great Debate Over Power Erupts As one of the most impactful aspects of the Constitution, the concept of federalism was considered extremely innovative - and controversial - in 1787.   Federalism’s sharing of powers by both the national and state governments was viewed to be in stark contrast to the â€Å"unitary† system of government practiced for centuries in Great Britain. Under such unitary systems, the national government allows local governments very limited powers to govern themselves or their residents. Thus, it is not surprising that Articles of Confederation, coming so soon after the end of Britain’s often tyrannical unitary control of colonial America, would provide for an extremely weak national government. Many newly-independent Americans, including some tasked with drafting the new Constitution, simply did not trust a strong national government - a lack of trust that resulted in a Great Debate. Taking place both during the Constitutional Convention and later during the state ratification process, The Great Debate over federalism pitted the Federalists against the Anti-Federalists. Headed by James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, the Federalists favored a strong national government, while the Anti-Federalists, led by Patrick Henry of Virginia, favored a weaker U.S. government leaving more power to the states. Opposed to the new Constitution, the Anti-Federalists argued that the document’s provision of federalism promoted a corrupt government, with the three separate branches constantly battling each other for control. In addition, the Anti-Federalists stirred fear among the people that a strong national government might allow the President of the United States to act as a virtual king. In defending the new Constitution, Federalist leader James Madison wrote in the â€Å"Federalist Papers† that the system of government created by the document would be â€Å"neither wholly national nor wholly federal.† Madison argued that federalism’s system of shared powers would prevent each state from acting as its own sovereign nation with the power to override the laws of the Confederation. Indeed, the Articles of Confederation had unequivocally stated, â€Å"Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled.† Federalism Wins the Day On September 17, 1787, the proposed Constitution - including its provision for federalism - was signed by 39 of the 55 delegates to the Constitutional Convention and sent to the states for ratification. Under Article VII, the new Constitution would not become binding until it had been approved by the legislatures of at least nine of the 13 states.    In a purely tactical move, the Federalist supporters of the Constitution began the ratification process in those states where they had encountered little or no opposition, postponing the more difficult states until later. On June 21, 1788, New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the Constitution. Effective March 4, 1789, the United States officially became governed by the provisions of the U.S. Constitution. Rhode Island became the thirteenth and final state to ratify the Constitution on May 29, 1790. The Debate Over the Bill of Rights Along with the Great Debate over federalism, a controversy arose during the ratification process over the Constitution’s perceived failure to protect the basic rights of American citizens. Led by Massachusetts, several states argued that the new Constitution failed to protect the basic individual rights and freedoms that the British Crown had denied the American colonists -   the freedoms of speech, religion, assembly, petition, and the press. In addition, these states also objected to the lack of powers granted to the states. In order to ensure ratification, supporters of the Constitution agreed to create and include the Bill of Rights, which at the time, included twelve rather than 10 amendments. Mainly to appease Anti-Federalists who feared that the U.S. Constitution would give the federal government total control over the states, Federalist leaders agreed to add the Tenth Amendment, which specifies that, â€Å"The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.†Ã‚   Updated by Robert Longley

P-47 Thunderbolt in World War II

P-47 Thunderbolt in World War II During the 1930s, the Seversky Aircraft Company designed several fighters for the US Army Air Corps (USAAC) under the guidance of Alexander de Seversky and Alexander Kartveli. In the late 1930s, the two designers experimented with belly-mounted turbochargers and created the AP-4 demonstrator. Having changed the company name to Republic Aircraft, Seversky and Kartveli moved forward and applied this technology to the P-43 Lancer. A somewhat disappointing aircraft, Republic continued to work with the design evolving it into the XP-44 Rocket/AP-10. A fairly lightweight fighter, the USAAC was intrigued and moved the project forward as the XP-47 and XP-47A. A contract was awarded in November 1939, however the USAAC, watching the early months of World War II, soon concluded that the proposed fighter was inferior to current German aircraft. As a result, it issued a new set of requirements which included a minimum airspeed of 400 mph, six machine guns, pilot armor, self-sealing fuel tanks, and 315 gallons of fuel. Returning to the drawing board, Kartveli radically changed the design and created the XP-47B. P-47D Thunderbolt Specifications General Length:  36 ft. 1 in.Wingspan:  40 ft. 9 in.Height:  14 ft. 8 in.Wing Area:  300 sq. ft.Empty Weight:  10,000 lbs.Loaded Weight:  17,500 lbs.Maximum Takeoff Weight:  17,500 lbs.Crew:  1 Performance Maximum Speed:  433 mphRange:  800 miles (combat)Rate of Climb:  3,120 ft./min.Service Ceiling:  43,000 ft.Power Plant:  1 Ãâ€" Pratt Whitney R-2800-59 twin-row radial engine, 2,535 hp Armament 8 Ãâ€" .50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine gunsUp to 2,500 lb of bombs10 x 5 unguided rockets Development Presented to the USAAC in June 1940, the new aircraft was a behemoth with an empty weight of 9,900 lbs. and centered on the 2,000 hp Pratt Whitney Double Wasp XR-2800-21, the most powerful engine yet produced in the United States. In response to the aircrafts weight, Kartveli commented,It will be a dinosaur, but it will be a dinosaur with good proportions. Featuring eight machine guns, the XP-47 featured elliptical wings and an efficient, durable turbocharger which was mounted in the fuselage behind the pilot. Impressed, the USAAC awarded a contract for the XP-47 on September 6, 1940, despite the fact that it weighed twice as much as the Supermarine Spitfire and Messerschmitt Bf 109 then being flown in Europe. Working quickly, Republic had the XP-47 prototype ready for its maiden flight on May 6, 1941. Though it exceeded Republics expectations and achieved a top speed of 412 mph, the aircraft underwent several teething problems including excessive control loads at high altitude, canopy jams, ignition arcing at high altitudes, less than desired maneuverability, and issues with the cloth-covered control surfaces. These issues were dealt with through the addition of a reward sliding canopy, metal control surfaces, and a pressurized ignition system. Additionally, a four-blade propeller was added to better take advantage of the engines power. Despite the loss of the prototype in August 1942, the USAAC ordered 171 P-47Bs and 602 of the follow-on P-47C. Improvements Dubbed the Thunderbolt, the P-47 entered service with the 56th Fighter Group in November 1942. Initially derided for its size by British pilots, the P-47 proved effective as a high-altitude escort and during fighter sweeps, as well as showed that it could out-dive any fighter in Europe. Conversely, it lacked the fuel capacity for long-range escort duties and the low-altitude maneuverability of its German opponents. By mid-1943, improved variants of the P-47C became available which possessed external fuel tanks to improve range and a longer fuselage for great maneuverability. The P-47C also incorporated a turbosupercharger regulator, reinforced metal control surfaces, and a shortened radio mast. As the variant moved forward, a host of minor improvements were included such as enhancements to the electrical system and a re-balancing of the rudder and elevators. Work on the aircraft continued as the war progressed with the arrival of the P-47D. Constructed in twenty-one variants, 12,602 P-47Ds were built during the course of the war. Early models of the P-47 possessed a tall fuselage spine and a razorback canopy configuration. This resulted in poor rear visibility and efforts were made to fit variants of the P-47D with bubble canopies. This proved successful and the bubble canopy was used on some subsequent models. Among the multitude of changes made with the P-47D and its sub-variants were the inclusion of wet mounts on the wings for carrying additional drop tanks as well as the use of a jettisonable canopy and a bulletproof windscreen. Beginning with the Block 22 set of P-47Ds, the original propeller was replaced with a larger type to increase performance. Additionally, with the introduction of the P-47D-40, the aircraft became capable of mounting ten high-velocity aircraft rockets under the wings and utilized the new K-14 computing gunsight. Two other notable editions of the aircraft were the P-47M and P-47N. The former was equipped with a 2,800 hp engine and modified for use in downing V-1 buzz bombs and German jets. A total of 130 were built and many suffered from a variety of engine problems. The final production model of the aircraft, the P-47N was intended as an escort for B-29 Superfortresses in the Pacific. Possessing an extended range and improved engine, 1,816 were built before the end of the war. Introduction The P-47 first saw action with the fighter groups of the Eighth Air Force in mid-1943. Dubbed the Jug by its pilots, it was either loved or hated. Many American pilots likened the aircraft to flying a bathtub around the sky. Though early models possessed a poor rate of climb and lacked maneuverability, the aircraft proved extremely rugged and a stable gun platform. The aircraft scored its first kill on April 15, 1943, when Major Don Blakeslee downed a German FW-190. Due to the performance issues, many early P-47 kills were the result of tactics which utilized the aircrafts superior diving ability. By the end of the year, the US Army Air Force was using the fighter in most theaters. The arrival of newer versions of the aircraft and a new Curtiss paddle-blade propeller greatly enhanced the P-47s capabilities, most notably its rate of climb. In addition, efforts had been made to extend its range to allow it to fulfill an escort role. Though this was ultimately taken over by the new North American P-51 Mustang, the P-47 remained an effective combatant and scored the majority of American kills in the early months of 1944. A New Role During this time, the discovery was made that the P-47 was a highly-effective ground-attack aircraft. This occurred as pilots sought targets of opportunity while returning from bomber escort duty. Capable of sustaining severe damage and remaining aloft, P-47s were soon fitted with bomb shackles and unguided rockets. From D-Day on June 6, 1944, through the end of the war, P-47 units destroyed 86,000 railway cars, 9,000 locomotives, 6,000 armored fighting vehicles, and 68,000 trucks. While the P-47s eight machine guns were effective against most targets, it also carried two 500-lb. bombs for dealing with heavy armor. By the end of World War II, the 15,686 P-47s of all types had been constructed. These aircraft flew over 746,000 sorties and downed 3,752 enemy aircraft. P-47 losses during the conflict totaled 3,499 to all causes. Though production ended shortly after the war ended, the P-47 was retained by the USAAF/US Air Force until 1949. Re-designated the F-47 in 1948, the aircraft was flown by the Air National Guard until 1953. During the war, the P-47 was also flown by Britain, France, Soviet Union, Brazil, and Mexico. In the years following the war, the aircraft was operated by Italy, China, and Yugoslavia, as well as several Latin American countries who retained the type into the 1960s. Selected Sources Aviation History: P-47 ThunderboltWarbird Alley: P-47 Thunderbolt